The History Of the Bicycle and the Context of its Design
by Daniel Atticus Anderson and Maneesh Sethi
From a self-proclaimed “horse with wheels” in the early nineteenth century to a multi-billion dollar industry today, the bike has been on a long journey through both time and space. What a bicycle looks like, what a bicycle is for, as well as who wants to ride one has been changing since its inception. Today there are many of different types of bikes, all created for specific purposes. What these bikes say about the places they are ridden and the people who ride them exposes their place in society. Since its inception, the bicycle has undergone many changes and now it is not only a product of the society we live in, but a vessel for personal expression and communal expansion.
During a recent renovation of notebooks from Leonardo da Vinci’s studio, a drawing was discovered. Dated 1493, this small sketch (fig. 1) is easily recognizable as what we call a bicycle today[1]. Whether da Vinci or one of his apprentices drew the sketch is uncertain and in 1493 society was not technologically advanced enough for its production. By the end of the story however, it is ironic to note how correct da Vinci was with his design.
The Clérifere and bicycle Pre-History
At the turn of the nineteenth century in France, almost three hundred years, later came the Clérifére. Extremely uncomfortable, not to mention very unsafe, this “horse with wheels” had a basic design of two wooden wheels held together by a rectangular wooden frame with a small seat. Momentum was attained by kicking your feet on the ground in a running motion. This bike had no steering mechanism and you had to pick it up and rotate it if you wanted to change directions. The Clérifere was renamed the velocifére and was used mostly by wealthy and eccentric Parisian men. As a vehicle it was novel at best. Needless to say, this bike did not gain worldwide appeal.
The next innovation was a more efficient design in addition to the ability to steer. This new contraption was invented by Karl von Drais in 1817 and called the “running machine” or Draisienne. Drais invented a more efficent wooden body design and combined it with a steering mechanism[2].
Riding the Draisienne proved to be a popular activity. People began building them in England, Germany, the United States, and France and there were more and more people riding. Small improvements were made such as brakes and adjustable seats but no major rennovation happened until almost 40 years later. The problem with the Draisienne was that it did not function well for actual daily trasportation. It was easiest (and most pleasurable) to ride in a park or garden on a well-maintained path. This led to the idea of the “riding machine” as a hobby instead of a legitimate method of transportation, a key detail in the evolution of the bicycle.
As these two-wheeled vehicles spread around Europe the desire for a more efficient method of transportation arose. People no longer wanted to kick the ground, they wanted more control, and they wanted a more comfortable ride.
The consumer, no longer wanting their feet dirtied by the ground they were riding over prompted change. In 1839 Kirkpatrick MacMillan, a Scottish blacksmith added cranks to the rear wheel, but is not known for producing any large amount of these crank driven bicycles.[3] It would not be another fifteen to twenty years until the Draisienne would be truly improved.
The Late 1800’s and The Front-Wheel Driven Bicycle
By 1860 the Draisienne had endured multiple modifications, including cranks, treadles, and levers. Most of these copying other wheel-based systems in industry. In 1865 Pierre Michaux released his front-driven velocipede. The wheels were 2’ 6” – 3’ 6”, there were pedals fixed to the front wheel, and the rear wheel was sligtly smaller to allow for the spring-loaded seat. [4]
This velocipede, or “bone-shaker” was for all intensive purposes the first bicycle, and could be called the first truly efficient method of mechanical vehicular transportation for humans. For the next thirty years, the development of the bicycle was centered around the front-wheel driven design. Due to the nature of the design, the only way to achieve greater speed and less bumps was by increasing the wheel diameter. This soon gave rise to the high wheel bicycle.
Developed in 1970 J. Starley and W. Hillman released the “Ariel” high wheeled ordinary bicycle. Later to be known as simply an “Ordinary”, the high wheel bicycle was built for speed. Promoted as a sport machine, marketing tactics included mile per hour figures accompanied with images of Ordinary riders zooming down the street.[5] The term “coasting” referred to flying down a hill with your feet off of the handlesbars, resting on the built-in leg rests (fig. 3).
Because of its inherent difficulty to ride, the percentage of people who owned bicycles was relatively small. The group generally consited of brave young men willing to tumble down a hill. Cities passed ordinances against riding on the walking paths (for they were the smoothest to ride on), and police were often quite brutal towards the cyclists.
By the end of the 1970s there were regular Ordinaries, side-saddle Ordinaries for the ladies, tricycles, and high-wheelers with small wheels in front among other more ridiculous designs.
In 1879 Henry J. Lawson invented the “bicyclette”. Compared to today’s bicycles, this was by far the most modern looking riding machine ever created[6]. However, it seemed that he built this bike in the wrong place at the wrong time. Sales of the bicyclette never took off. At this time speed was still the most important element in bicycle riding, and with smaller wheels, the bicyclette was slower and slightly more unstable. Due to this factor, compounded on Lawson’s lack of sales talent, his bicyclette business failed.
The most important discovery that Lawson, and soon other manufacturerers realized, was the geared rear drivetrain. This allowed a smaller wheel to be fitted with a larger gear, allowing the rider to attain higher speeds. As more of these bicycles with rear driven gears were made, they begin to create a dichotomy of bicycle culture. Now there were both Ordinary riders, and the new safety riders.
The Turn of the Century and the Safety Bicycle
Advancements in chain and framing technology and techniques led to the creation of the “safety” bicycle. The main problem with Lawson’s bicyclette was that it had an extremely awkward steering mechanism. The safety bicycle combined the geared rear wheel technology with an Ordinary-style steering column.[7] This bike was stable, easy to steer, and as the century wore on, relatively cheap to produce.
By the mid 1880s there was a standards war across the globe. Was the top bicycle going to be the the age-old high wheeler or the new and modern safety bicycle. History obviously proves that the safety bike would win. This is because while only a technically gifted and courageous elite group of society could ride an Ordinary, everyday people including women and children could potentially ride a safety bicycle. Overnight the demand for safety bicycles skyrocketed.
By the time of its invention, there had already been significant innovation in the world of spokes, frames, seats, and brakes. As the gear on the rear wheel developed, multiple gears could be put on a bike, and even be changed while the bike was being ridden. Tangential spokes were invented which helped strengthen the wheel, as opposed to normal radial spokes. The spokes and the frames were made of steel tubing, and as steel rolling techniques became more advanced bicycles became stronger and lighter. [8]
The bicycle truly became a signifier of social mobility as well as economic mobility. While first only available to the upper level of society, bicycles soon became widely available to middle class and even working class families.
In America, Pope Manufacturing Company was the leader in bicycle manufacturing. Albert L. Pope, an industrial genius modernized his manufacturing plants by extending the division of labor and mechanizing systems whenever possible. Pope had mass production and assembly line techniques that were praised by Henry Ford before his Model T was even built.[9] Also, through vertical integration (the purchase of rubber tire factories and other bicycle factories), Pope was able to create cheap and sturdy bicycles that many could afford.
By the mid 1890’s a bicycle was a common method of transportation as well as an enjoyable recreational activity. The only problem with riding a bicycle everywhere was the state of the roads.
The bicycle soon began to shape society, as well as society shape it. While high-wheeled Ordinaries would cost far too much for a young person to afford, the new Pope bicycles, among others, allowed a wider range of people to ride bikes.
Young speed demons, often called “scorchers” would race through the streets on modified safeties.[10] Women began to ride bikes more and more often.
For the first time in history, a woman could drive and operate her own vehicle. This newfound agency allowed for women to gain a new sense of independence and freedom. This was truly one of the first steps towards women’s suffrage and the women’s rights movement.[11] Some men were outraged at the sight of a woman revealing herself so egregiously in public. Some women began to wear pants in order to ride their bicycles. Some side-saddle bicycles were made they were not widely produced. [12]
The bicycle accessories industry also took off. Many of the bicycles availble for purchase in the 1890s looked very similar. To spice up the look of your own bike, one could buy a bell or a whistle, a wide array of different bicycle hand-bags and tool bags. For women, there were skirt-guards for the chain, attatchable umbrellas and a wide array of other ribbons and other miscellaneous items.[13] In California’s Riverside Daily Enterprise on August 25, 1896 a rhyme appeared:
“Hey diddle diddle
The bicycle riddle,
The strangest part of the deal;
Just keep your accounts-
Add up the amounts;
The ‘sundries’ cost more than the wheel.”[14]
Sundries and the Bicycle as a Social Signifier
These ‘sundries’ were the bicycle accessories, and the fact that people would spend so much on their bikes sheds light on the way bicycles fit into society.
In average western contemporary society of 2010, there are two large economic purchases that a human makes. One is purchasing a house, the other is purchasing a car.
In contemporary 1890’s society, a person still desired to own a house, or at least an apartment. However, aside from a home and the clothes they wore, there was no real physical good that could signify their place in society. Where a low income home and a upper class home today would most likely have drastically different vehicles, in the 1890s everyone would have a drastically different bicycle.
Bicycle accessories sold like hotcakes, because they also acted like a social signifier. If you had all of the bicycle accessories and the hottest new bicycle, you and your family was obviously, and visibly, doing well for it’s self. In the booming economy of the turn of the century, all the people trying to climb the social ladder would want a bike.
Because there were so many people on bicycles, bike riders began to gain some political influence as an interest group. Road improvement associations were launched in the United States and Canada. While many groups had wanted road improvements since before the bicycle was even invented, the sheer number of bicycle riders in the 1890s fueled a campaign and the formation of several key groups. In America, the National Cycle Union and the Cycle Tourist Club merged to form the Roads Improvement Association. People began to feel that a sign of a city’s level of modernization was visible through the state of its roads, and by the 1900s American roads were well maintained and populated by horse carriages, a few stage coaches and many many bicyclists. [15]
Bicycles after 1900: America, Europe, the Bicycle and the Automobile
After 1900, this all began to change. The first autombiles were being built in the late 1800s, and by the turn of the century Henry Ford would be perfecting his assembly line. The automobile was soon to take over the thoughts and hearts of the Americans. Europeans were not far behind in their love of the automobile. Due to America’s desire for a suburban lifestyle, and having a majority of Americans have well paying jobs, a car became a viable option. Once the average American citizen realized that he (or she) could purchase a car, the desire for a bicycle soon disappeared. By the end of 1910, Pope had gone bankrupt and tried to enter into the automobile industry.
The suburb was developing, the American lifestyle was beginning to include driving a vehicle. The roads had already gotten an extreme makeover thanks to the bicyclists lobbying powers. Now as the wealther levels of society went out and purchased cars, the new social signifier was set. In America, no longer was a bicycle an esteemable adult possession. Now a bicyle was just a vehicle you could buy when you could not afford a car.
In Europe however, the roads were small, cities were dense, and those who lived in the suburbs did not have a need for a long commute. For these reasons, the development of the automobile in many European countries went much slower. They still had cars, but for a large majority of the population it was not a reasonable piece of property to own.
Bicycles and automobiles were used in the military in moth World War I and World War II. After World War 1, America’s economy was more militarized. Car production continued through the Great Depression. In America, bicycling became an exccentric pastime. By the time World War II ended, the automobile industry exploded. For the most part, the bicycle did not change in this part of history, but once cars became the American way by the 1950s, bicycles slowly were pushed out of frame.
However, as the first half of the century came to a close there was one stark difference between American and European bicycle habits. For both countries, riding bicycles started out as a hobby, or recreational sport. In England, many people continued to ride their bike as a commuter vehicle. In America, a bicycle became a second hand form of transport when compared with the car. Americans wanted to drive while Europeans did not mind biking at all.
By the end of World War II, bicycling in America was mostly a childrens activity. Due to the ability to produce small frames, combined with the economic boom of the 1950’s, Americans bought cars for the adults in the family and bicycles for the children.
1950s to Present: What is a bicycle today?
Bicycles and what they are used for has always been a product of who is riding them. In Europe, bicycling had always been an adults sport. Not until much later in Europe’s bicycle history was their accomodations for children riders. There were annual adult bike races such as the Tour de France, there were bicycle clubs and a bicycle was a common way to get to work.
In America, biking became dominated by the younger generation. Racing was popular, but riding down large hills and other types of more extreme bicylcing began to take off in America. Along with road and racing bikes, mountain bikes developed. From the mountain bike craze developed a new modern type of riding: BMX biking[16]. A common sight in a BMX competition would be huge aerial tricks and small, sturdy, and lightweight bikes.
Different views of the bicycle developed in different parts of the world, and with these different perpectives came alternative bicycle subcultures. Each culture unique in its own way, but shaped by the bicycle and eventually shaping a bicycle to fit its needs.
Today there are many types of bicycles and many more types of riders. Most people cannot afford to buy more than one bicycle, or would rather not have more than one. This leads each consumer to have to make choice of which type of bike would be right for him or her. Does she want a beach cruiser? Does he want a BMX bike? Or a fixed-gear? Or a mountain-bike? Hard-tail? Road bike? The possibilities seem endless.
As in the early 20th century, we define our bicycles, but in return they also define us. The type of bike you have says a lot about what activities you like to do. Maybe you don’t ride a bike. Does that mean you have a car? There is always a unique reason to why someone does, or does not have a bike.
A search of craigslist.com, or any classified ad section of a paper could find you a bike for next to nothing. The accessibility and usefulness of a bike is taken for granted in modern society.
Today, a bicycle is not only a mothod of transportation; it is a product that defines the user just as much as the user defines it. How bicycles fit into todays society also tell about how they got here today. Bicycle riders helped build the road, and now the roads are packed with cars, so bicyclists want separate bike paths. Bicycle sharing programs are being started by many countries wishing to make it easier for their citizens to travel cheaply and efficiently. Copenhagen is the best example of a bicycle based city; children bike alone to school and almost every adult uses a bicycle for their daily commute.
The bicycle as we know it today has evolved from novelty to necessity, and continues to change the way we are able to interact with the world around us.
Now check out The Cultural, Economic and Social Effects
[1] Bijker, Wiebe E. Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cambridge, Mass..: MIT, 2002. (p. 20)
[2] Bijker, Wiebe E. Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cambridge, Mass..: MIT, 2002. (p. 22)
[3] Bijker, Wiebe E. Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cambridge, Mass..: MIT, 2002. (p. 25)
[4] Herlihy, David V. Bicycle: the History. New Haven: Yale UP, 2004. (75)
[5] Herlihy, David V. Bicycle: the History. New Haven: Yale UP, 2004. (p. 159)
[6] Bijker, Wiebe E. Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 2002. (p. 69)
[7] Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: the Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001. (p.89)
[8] Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: the Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001.(p. 105)
[9] Norcliffe, G. (p. 108)
[10] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGnvV4rLvNU
[11] Bijker, Wiebe E. Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 2002. (p. 69)
[12] Herlihy, David V. Bicycle: the History. New Haven: Yale UP, 2004. (p. 215)
[13] Norcliffe, (p. 121)
[14] Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: the Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001.(p. 123)
[15] Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: the Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900. Toronto: University of Toronto, 2001.(p. 150
[16] Fat Tire: a Celebration of the Mountain Bike. San Francisco: Chronicle, 1999 (p. 12)